Week 11

Love In The Time of Cholera

"Love in the Time of Cholera", directed by Mike Newell, is based upon the novel written by Nobel Prize winner Gabriel Garcia Márquez.  The story takes place in the late 1800's and early 1900's in Colombia.  Florentino, a poor young man, falls helplessly in love with Fermina, the daughter of a rich mule owner.   After exchanging love letters, they confess their love and agree to marry.  Fermina's father discovers her love letters, confronts Florentino and threatens to kill him if he does not stay out of Fermina's life.  Florentino responds to this threat by saying "there is no greater glory than to die for love."  Fermina's is sent away to live in her father's village located far into the mountains.  In spite of their distance, their love doesn't dwindle while they are apart.  Upon her return, Fermina's father gives her the keys to their house and declares that she is in charge of their home.  In doing this, Fermina becomes the lady of the house and has acquired a higher social status. Fermina and Florentino run into each other at the market and Fermina rejects and denounces their relationship by saying that their love was an illusion.  Florentino is devastated and heartbroken to the point he becomes physically ill.  Florentino's mother sees his physical symptoms and declares he has cholera to which Florentino replies, "Mama, you confuse cholera with love.

Fermina becomes ill and fearing cholera, her father sends for Dr. Juvenal Urbino, who specializes in treating cholera patients.  Upon seeing her beauty, he falls in love with her.  They eventually marry and have children.  Dr. Urbino states that "hapiness is not the most important, but stability."  Although their family has money, power and status, their marriage lacks fulfillment.

Meanwhile, Florentino vows to remain faithful to Fermina and continues to suffer with his loveless heartache.  Seeing Dr. Urbino and Fermina upon their return from their honeymoon, Florentino comes to understand that he will be nothing to Fermina if he does not improve his social and financial status.  Florentino visits his uncle, Don Leon, to ask for a job so he can become rich, just like his uncle.  Don Leon responds by saying, "I am a poor man that has money.  It is not the same thing as being rich."  Over the years Florentino eventually becomes the president of his uncle's riverboat company and achieves wealth and social status.  During this time, in an effort to mask his heartache, Florentino begins a lifelong habit of seducing women into casual sex and journaling these encounters, all the while, still remaining hopelessly in love with Fermina. 

While trying to capture a pet parrot, Dr. Urbino falls off a ladder and dies.  After the funeral, Florentino visits Fermina and announces that he has for over 51 years, remained eternally faithful and declares his everlasting love for her.  She yells at him to get out and leave her alone.  Unwilling to be defeated, he writes her letters and eventually, Fermina agrees to see him where they develop a friendship.  Now, in their 70's, they board one of Florentino's riverboats and take a trip together.  Breaking all family, society, and cultural boundaries, they finally end their torture and give themselves to each other.  In order for them to be alone without any outside influence, Florentino orders the captain to raise the cholera flag so that the two of them can be alone on the riverboat.  Their love finally fulfilled, Florentino says, "Think of love as a state of grace; not as a means to anything, but the alpha and the omega, an end itself."

Love in the Time of Cholera and Freire's Philosophies

There are many of Freire’s philosophies illustrated throughout this movie.  Freire believed that humans are incomplete beings and have the internal desire to become complete.  Florentino could only become complete with the love of Fermina. In the movie, Florentino was told to “enjoy your pain.  Take advantage of it now.  These things don’t last you your whole life.”  Florentino’s life experiences along with his pain, provided him with the awareness to bring about personal change. Additionally, Freire worked to break class barriers through the education of poor and rural people.  Through Florentino’s life experiences, he realized that in order to win Fermina, he must become rich and therefore went to his uncle to request a job.  Tired of being rejected by Fermina, he devoted his professional life to improve his social status.  Freire believed that oppression was a term used to describe someone who was not heard.  Florentino was oppressed because Fermina was rejecting his love (not hearing him) and society would not accept him because he was poor and uneducated.  Additionally, there are many other illustrations of social and gender oppression throughout this movie.

A Human Story that Transcends Borders

One of the main reasons this story transcends borders is because of its analogy to cholera.  During this era, cholera was uncontrollable.  The illness was random and people contracted the disease regardless of social status, wealth or education.   Love is universal and is also uncontrollable.  During the scene in the movie when Florentino asks for Fermina’s hand in marriage, Fermina’s aunt/companion says, “Love is strange.  You can’t control who you love.  If you say no, you’ll be sorry for the rest of your life.” Fermina was ultimately remorseful that she did not marry Florentino resulting in both Florentino and Fermina entering a period of eternal suffering in their lives.  Similarly, cholera was a death sentence for many who contracted the illness, just like Florentino’s death sentence when Fermina rejected him.  A part of him died, but he still remained hopeful – almost persistent – that he would one day reclaim her love.  Just like a family watching their loved one suffer from cholera.  They suffer as they watch this person with the illness, all the while, hopeful that they will recover.  With death, all opportunities to make changes in life have ended. As long as Florentino was alive, he refused to give up on Fermina and was willing to do what he could to make changes to win her love.  The story proves that “it is life not death that has no limits".

Review of Classmates work of Week 10

Alyssa wrote about Cesar Chavez and how he wanted people to become aware of the struggles of labor workers. 

Brandon noted that Cesar Chavez was dedicated to his dream of helping farm workers.

Candace researched post modern music.  Nueva canción was a new type of music during this Era that seemed to me to be a statement of how artist's and people felt.

Jamison  also researched Cesar Chavez.  He noted that Chavez founded the National Farm Workers Association.

Kim wrote about Maya sign languages and noted that they are used in Mexico and Guatemala in communities with unusually high numbers of deaf residents.

Maria wrote about the The Nicaraguan Sign Language and noted that
in the 1970's, deaf students established a permanent sign language so that they could all understand each other.

Melissa wrote about Carlos Fuentes, a Mexican novelist, playwright, essayist and journalist. His most famous international breakthrough came in 1962 with the novel La Muerte de Artemio Cruz or The Death of Artemio Cruz.

Paul wrote about the Maya sign language and that it is more of an expression of the mental ideas so it is just as complex and diverse as the spoken language.

Sara researched the Bracero Program.  This program was designed to bring migrant farm workers from Mexico to the US as temporary migrants. More than 4 million Mexican farm laborers came to work the fields, converting the agricultural fields of America into the most productive in the world.

Susan reserched Rigoberta Menchu who promoted indigenous rights in the country.

Week 10

The Boom, Post-Boom and Contemporary or Post Modern Era of Latin America

The Boom time period from 1960 through 1970 refers to a literary movement in Latin America when a small group of writers from Latin America had their works published in Europe and received literary recognition outside of their homeland.  Due to the political climate in Latin America, writers from this time period challenged the established practices of Latin American literature by producing experimental works often with political themes or undertones.  Magic Realism also became a popular writing technique during this era.  This literary mode is characterized by two conflicting perspectives where the writer has the ability to create normal settings and infuse an element of the supernatural whereby the reader is caught up in a dream-like situation that leaves the reader wondering if this is true or could actually happen.

The Post-Boom era is the literary movement of the 1980's and 1990's for authors who's works had reached public awareness during the Boom era and continued to publish new work.  Additionally during this time, woman authors, particularly novelists, were being recognized.

The final literacy era, Post Modern, is difficult to define.  This literary period tends to overlap and extend into and beyond the Boom and Post Boom eras.  It tends to link all the time periods while embracing "fluid and multiple perspectives, typically refusing to privilege any one truth claim over another...Truth points only to other ideasand artifacts, themselves subject to interpretation and re-interpretation" (Knowledgerush).  In summary, the Post Modern Era links all the literacy eras together while allowing all the disciplines in life - art, philosophy, theology, film, TV, music, fashion, technology, literature, communications, etc. - to influence and challenge preconceived ideas and concepts.

References

I used the following references because the information was either confirmed by a different source and/or the author noted their references, which were verified.

Teh Boom Novels, Latin American Literature. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2009. 19 October 2009.  http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331811/Latin-American-literature/236896/The-boom-novels

Latin America Boom, Wikipedia. 19 October 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Boom

Post Boom Writers, Latin American Literature.  Encyclopedia Britannica.  2009. 18 October 2009.  http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331811/Latin-American-literature/236897/Post-boom-writers

Post Modernism. Knowledgerush. 19 October 2009. http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Postmodernism/

Post Modern Literature. Wikipedia. 19 October 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_literature

Rigoberta Menchu

When researching the different topics for this week,  I began to read about a woman who I had never heard of before:  Rigoberta Menchu.  Her story of events that occurred 13 to 30 years ago was compelling, frightening and encouraging.

Rigoberta Menchu was born in 1959 in the small village of Chimel, located in the northern highlands of Guatemala.  Her family was Quiche Indian and very poor.  Her family owned a small plot of land but it did not produce enough to sustain the family.  So, like most of the people in their village, they had to work on the coastal coffee or cotton plantations for most of the year.  Working on the plantation was harsh and as a result, two of Rigoberta's brothers died.  One died from malnutrition and the other from poisoning from the pesticides that are sprayed on the coffee plants.

Similarly, as in the time of the Conquest era, the indigenous people in Guatemala, including Rigoberta's family, did not have rights of citizenship.  Only people of Spanish descent were eligible for citizenship.  As a result, Rigoberta's family and the other people in her village were vulnerable to the military-led government and the wealthy landowners that were starting to take over Indian occupied lands through force.  Her father began to petition the government and organized protests to help secure the lands rightfully belonging to the people.  Her entire family became activists in the movement her father organized:  The United Peasant Committee.  In 1979, Rigoberta's 16-year-old brother was kidnapped by soldiers, tortured and burned alive while the family watched.  A year later, her father was killed and in 1981 Rigoberta's mother was kidnapped, raped, tortured and killed.  Wanted by the Guatemalan government, Rigoberta fled to Mexico.  While in exile, she dictated her autobiography, "I...Rigoberta Menchu" (1984).  She was 25 years old.  Rigoberta wanted to tell the world not only her own story, but also the story of other Indians in Guatemala and their conflict with the military government.  She wanted to bring about international attention to this conflict with the purpose of pursuing peace and jsutice for indigenous and poor people in Guatemala.

In 1992, Rigoberta Menchu was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.  She used the cash prize to set up a foundation to continue the fight for the rights of the indigenous people.  As a result of her efforts, the United Nations claimed 1993 the "International Year for Indigenous Populations".  The efforts of Rigoberta and this foundation has focused on actively pursuing the case against soldiers involved in the Xaman Massacre where on October 5, 1995, eleven people were killed and 27 injured during a celebration for a group fo Guatemalan refuges who had just returned from Mexico.

In the YouTube video "Rigoberta Menchu  Live at the Human Forum", Rigoberta spoke about being a light of goodness for others.  She said that she's been asked if she has hatred for those who murdered her family and she said, "Hatred is a disease of the spirit and I don't want to get sick.  But, I do fight for justice."  She sums up her life work with, "The final goal is to do something that produces results.  Not to focus on just yourself - To do something for others and other life.  Awareness and action.  Awareness without action is useless.  It doesn't do any good."

References

This is a great reference because Bois lists his sources that confirm his information.

Bois, Danuta. Rigoberta Menchu.  Distinguished Women of Past and Present.  1996. 19 October 2009.  http//www.distinguishedwomen.com/biographies/menchu.html

The YouTube source is a valid 1st person source.  Rigoberta Menchu is the actual speaker.

Rigoberta Menchu - Live at the Human Forum. You Tube.  22 May 2007. 20 October 2009. http://youtube.com/watch?v=yvnUEup1hC4

Credits were not noted in the following article.  However, I was able to confirm most of the information on this site and many of the exerpts are taken directly from her autobiography.

Rigoberta's Story. World Trek for Service and Education. The Odyssey Latin American Stage. 20 October 2009. http://www.worldtrek.org/odyssey/latinamerican/rigoberta/rigoberta_story.html

Week 9 - Classmates Reviews
Julisa researched Our Lady of Guadalupe. One interesting fact - The bishop told Juan to bring back a sign of is apparition and he came back with some Castillian roses, which were native only to Spain.

Kathy researched Simon Bolivar who was a South American political leader who played a key role in Latin America's independence from Spain.

Kelsey was researched the Virgin of Guadalupe because she wanted to learn more about her and how she became the symbol of Mexico.

Logan researched Father Hidalgo of Mexico.  Hidalgo’s liberal ideas led him to join forces with a group of people who opposed the Spanish Dominance and together this strong group of liberals would begin a revolution. 

Michael wrote about Camila O'Gorman who at 8 months pregnant was executed, along with her priest-lover. These events contributed to the demise of then Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas. 

Nancy researched José Martí, national hero of the Cuban liberation movement in the late 1800’s.  he is often called the Apostle of Cuban independence because his writings inspired and helped produce the independence movement

Nicole also wrote about Virgin of Guadalupe.  Many Catholics believe that it was Our lady of Guadalupe who told Juan Diego to build a church in what is now known as Mexico City.

Robert also researched Father Hidalgo who was an integral part of Mexico’s independence movement.  Robert felt that Hidalgo should be recognized for his contributions and ultimate sacrifice.

Shannon researched Jose Marti, a Cuban revolutionary who died in combat fighting for independence for Cuba from Spain.  Additionally, Shannon noted that Marti had an intense passion for Cuban independence but even more so for the decency of mankind.

Stacy wrote about Camila O'Gorman who is a portrayal of the consequences of a woman asserting her own will.

Week 9

The Independence Era of Latin America

Between the years of 1807-1826,  freedom from Iberian (Spain and Portugal) rulers came suddenly for those living on Latin American soil.  Many reforms or laws imposed by Spanish government in the 1700's created a strained relationship between the colonial rulers and their subjects.  Creoles, children of Spanish parents who were born in the Americas, felt these laws were unjust and undermined their wealth, political power and social status.  The long-building tensions, the loosing of trade restrictions and the influence of the French and American Revolutions fueled the desire for independence.  By 1826, all of Latin America, except the Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico were free from Spanish and Portuguese rule.

This site provides references for the information stated in the article:
History of Latin America.  Encyclopedia Britannica.  2009.  Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 17 October 2009.  http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331694/Latin-America.

Although I don't generally take information found in Wikipedia as "gospel truth", there was information in this article that collaborated information found in other sources I used.
History of Latin America. Wikipedia. 12 October 2009.  http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Latin_America.

Latin American Independence Movements.  YouTube.  17 October 2009.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9PmNPyLGE_o

Latin American Architecture

Architecture is a compelling art form.  Whenever in a new city, I'm always drawn to old buildings and churches.  I find beauty in the arches and geometric patterns found in the construction of each building.  I am interested in learning more about the architectural styles found in Latin American buildings and monuments.  The Conquest, Colonial and Independence eras in Latin American history are inter-related and this is clearly evident in the architectural styles found throughout Latin America.   As a result, I will include concepts and examples for these eras.

Latin American Architecture after 1500 and to the early 1800's is called Ibero-American architecture after the Iberian colonists who build settlements in the Caribbean Islands.  During the European conquest, architecture was a tool to be used for urban planning and many town planners used a grid or checkerboard plan for the layout of new towns and cities.  According to Encarta, the on-line encyclopedia, the use of this type of layout was "intended to impose rational order and European administrative control on the new settlement".  Each town featured a central plaza with an adjacent main church and governmental buildings with residences of the town's authorities facing the square.  In port cities such as Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic and Cartagena in Columbia, the streets connected the central plaza to the warehouses and docks of the port and to the surrounding military fortresses.

Many early colonial buildings resembled fortresses due to military engineers designing and building these early structures.  The simple design and solid military function of these early buildings mirrored Spain's priorities for the colonies:  the removal of native raw materials and the protection of trade.

Another priority of the conquerors was the conversion of the indigenous people to Christianity.  They created a new type of architecture for this purpose:  a large, open-aired sanctuary called an atrio, which was similar to those built for the Franciscan missionaries in Mexico in the 16th century.  Each atrio included a large square courtyard with a large stone pavilion or posa, at each of the four corners.  The local native people were forced to build these atrios and then were brought to them for conversion.  The mission at Huejotzingo (1545) reflects this style of architecture typical to this period in rural areas.

However, in major cities, colonial architecture took on Spanish classical features.  The first cathedral in the Americas was the Cathedral of Santo Domingo (1512-1541).  This building features classical archways combined with elaborate ornamentation, which reflects the plateresque style of architecture that was then popular in Spain.  Plateresque is a combination of Italian Renaissance architecture with the detailed carvings of the late Gothic influence.

In the 1600's, many Iberian artists were arriving in the colonies.  These artists and architects took on native apprentices and trained them to faithfully follow European styles and techniques.  Additionally, the Baroque style was introduced during this time and is depicted in the massive use of ornamentation.

It wasn't until the 1700's when church designs of Brazilian sculpture and architect Antonio Francisco Lisbôa (known as Aleijadino) provided examples of "cultural mixing" in Latin American architecture.  The Church of São Francisco de Assís (1764-1774) in Ouro Prêto, Brazil reflects Aleijadinho's adaptation of traditional Portuguese themes and materials with his use of whitewash finishes, dark stone trim and graceful curves.

During the period of independence in Latin America, the Creole population became more assertive and competitive with Iberia resulting in architecture and decorative arts becoming more lavish, reflecting the dominance of French-inspired styles of art.  The Churrigueresque style of architecture, a form of extravagant Baroque, developed from this time period and can be identified by the intricate and ornamental columns that are more decorative than structural.

Although most of Latin America achieved political independence by 1826, this independence did not bring forth any form of artistic independence due to Europe's economic influence that was still in effect in Latin America.  From an architectural point of view, many of Latin America's great cities were just a western version of Paris with its broad streets, art museums and opera houses.  The Teatro Municipal in Rio de Janeiro is an example of the Parisian architectural styles and fashions of the time as a result of economic dependence on Europe.

Resources

Antigua City, Guatemala. YouTube. 13 October 2009.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_OkfUyLJ4xI 
Antigua Guatemala. Jim Rogers Around the World Adventure. YouTube.  15 October 2009.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nBpKMd-Vzfs

Bolivia - Sucre and Festival of Santa-Travel.   Jim Rogers World Adventure.  YouTube.  15 October 2009.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXaQoeZevws

The following articles listed sources for the information noted in their articles which provided credibility to the site.

Latin America Architecture. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. 14 October 2009. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555003/Latin_American_Architecture.html

http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555003_2/latin_american_art_and_architecture.html

Spanish Colonial Art and Architecture:  Colonial Architecture in Central America. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.  1994, 2000-2006, on Infoplease. Pearson Education, publishing as Infoplease. 14 October 2009.  http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/ent/A0861254.html 

Week 8 - Classmate Reviews


Gray researched the California Mission San Juan Capistrano.  He wrote how the bells played an important part of the life in the mission.  He was drawn to this specific mission because it has a unique look to it. 

Kim researched Aruba because she has an interest in traveling there in the future.  The native Arawak Indians were the first inhabitants and their population was wiped out due to diseases brought to their island by the European conquerors.

Maria researched the California Missions.  She noted that the first mission was established in 1769 and the final California mission was built in 1823 and was only in operation for 11 years. 

Melissa researched Mission San Fernando Rey de España.  This mission was founded on “The Feast of the Birth of Mary” on September 8, 1797 by Father Fermín Lasuén and was the 17th California Mission. 

Michael researched pirates.  He found the topic of pirates and privatering in the Caribbean interesting because it seems to parallel the behavior of many countries in the world today.  Fascinating topic. 

Michele researched Palacio Virreinal de Diego Colon or Castle of Colon.  This palace was built from 1510 to 1512 for Diego Colon, Son of Christopher Columbus. 

Paul researched the conquest of Mexico and the Aztec empire.  In his interesting fact #1, he wrote "before Cortez had ventured into Mexico to go after the Aztecs and their gold, he had all but one of his ships sunk as a challenge to see if any of his men were feeling weak and wanted to go back. This action made them all the more serious that if they chose to venture forward with him, they would have to be 100% committed and very brave."  Talk about incentive!

Sara researched American Colonial architecture.   She learned that the small windows in the Jamestown Colonial houses was due to the scarcity of glass.

Stacy wrote about Latin American colonial art.  She wrote that "The colonial integration produced many conflicts which are depicted in the art as well."

Susan wrote how Spain took control of the Caribbean islands to pursue financial wealth through mining but came to realize that the islands were best for the production of sugar.

Week 8

Conquest Era

The Conquest Era is the time period of Latin America which began around 1492 and ended 1572-1580 (depending on your sources).  It was a time period of exploration and the conquest of lands in the Caribbean, Central and South America and Mexico with the primary purpose of increasing wealth and power for the European backers of these explorations.

While researching general information of this time period, I was drawn to the articles and videos of this ancient and often mislabeled people, the Moors.

The Moors, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella

The Turning Point in World Power

  
In 711 AD, Islamic forces invaded Spain and began a new era of Spanish power, where for more than 700 years, most of Spain was ruled by Muslims.

Although modern Spanish history books have stereotyped Spanish Muslims, or Moors, as treacherous and blood thirsty, archeological evidence suggests that although there was fierce battles which occurred during the Arab invasion, most of the Spanish Visigoths welcomed the Arabs for their intellectual curiosity and for their ability to provide protection. This vibrant Arab culture valued education for all and stressed that "with knowledge, you can become what you want to be in the future" (video.google).  People converted to the Muslim faith because the culture offered wealth, social structure and intellectual power.  The Arabs brought with them expert artisans and woodcarvers along with a great sense of aesthetic beauty to their new homeland.  During the next 700 years, the Moors built impressive cities, developed a legal system, built up massive libraries, advanced science, mathematics and medicine and created universities.  Through trade and agriculture, they developed a wealthy, prosperous, and advanced civilization.  The Moors embraced scientific and mathematical learning and knowledge from other countries including the ancient Greeks.  During this period, the Moors were performing medical operations that wouldn't be seen in western civilization for another 400 years.  Archeologists have uncovered Arabic translations of ancient texts including the Bible and works from Aristotle.

The Moors development and use of the 9th century astrolabe, allowed precise navigational calculations through measurements taken of the sun, moon and stars.  This development allowed for accurate navigation from the night sky and furthered the push for exploration and also advanced sea travel, which set the stage for worldwide sea exploration and discoveries.

Muslim Spain had a great influence on the surrounding countries and cultures.  The language of chemistry and alchemy was developed from the Arabic languages along with the development of scientific and mathematical concepts such as algorithms and algebra.  Up until this time period, written representation of numbers was with the use of Roman Numerals and the Moors introduced the use of Arabic numbers (which are considerably similar to our current number system).  Oxford University in England was founded upon knowledge gained from Islamic Spain's city of Toledo, which served as the capital city of Visigothic Spain and was considered to be the intellectual hub of the country.

The turning point in this time period began in 1492 when world power shifted from the influence of the Muslim Moors to the Catholic monarchs.  King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella captured the Muslim city of Granada and drove out Islamic Spain.  The monarchs created regulations preventing Jews and Muslims from obtaining positions of power within the government.  The Inquisition was reinstated which was a state-controlled tribunal that enforced Catholicism throughout Spain.  The monarchs were obsessed with religious and cultural uniformity throughout the land and exiled those Jews and Muslims who refused to convert to Catholicism as a form of ethnic cleansing.  Many aristocratic Spanish families altered their family trees to intentionally remove any trace of Muslim heritage from their written past.  The stereotypical image of the brutal and barbaric Moor was more likely Catholic propaganda than truth as an attempt by the new Spanish monarchs to eradicate the influence of the Moors from Spain.

Modern Spanish history books continue to present this obsession with religious and cultural uniformity through negative stereotypes, which minimize or exclude Muslim influence and rule during this time period to create an illusion toward Catholic ideologies.

Around the same time King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella take control over Granada, Christopher Columbus unsuccessfully attempts to gain financial backing from Portugal for his expedition to explore eastern Asia by sailing west.  In 1492, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella agree to finance Columbus' expedition in an effort to challenge trade and exploration away from Portugal.


Resources
All of the on-line resources provided references for the information provided in their articles or I was able to confirm the information with an additional source.
Beck, Sanderson. Spnish Conquest 1492-1580.  http://www.san.beck.org/11-2-SpanishConquest.html


Christopher Columbus - Explorers, Pioneers, and Frontiersmen, 1451-1506.
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1033.html

King Ferdinand & Queen Isabella Spain. Kwintessential.

http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/articles/article/Spain/King-Ferdinand-&_Queen_Isabella-Spain/1012

Muslim Spain;  The Reconquest;  The Catholic Monarchs;  The Discovery of America. "Si Spain".  http://www.sispain.org/english/history/index.html

Solsten, Eric and Sandra W. Meditz, editors. The Golden Age:  Ferdinand and Isabella. Spain: A country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. 1988.  http://countrystudies.us/spain/7.htm

Video.google.com. When the Moors Ruled in Europe.

htpp://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&q=muslims%20of%20spain%2C%20history&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#

Part 2 - Classmates Review of Week 6

Beatriz researched the Aztecs who were wanderers and lived during the 14th through the 16th centuries.  They were conquered by Hernandez Cortez.


Brandon researched the Mayan civilization.  He learned that they used a slash and burn type of preparation for farming to clear the rainforest for farming. The soil is quite infertile and all nutrients were depleted within a few years.


Candace studied the Aztec civilization and that the translation for the Aztec city of Teotihuacan means "city where men become gods".


Jamison also studied the Aztec civilization and wrote how the Valley of Mexico was the center of the Aztec civilization.  He indicated that  Teotihuacan was the capital of the Aztec Triple Alliance.

Kathy researched the Guarani and wrote how they are related culturally to the Tupi but distinguished from them by their use of the Guarani language. She wrote how there are two official languages of Paraguay; Spanish and Guarani and that children in Paraguay are required to speak, read and write in both languages.

Michael researched the Mayan and wrote how they are known for having the only fully developed written language of Pre-Colombian Americas.


Nancy researched the Olmec civilization and indicated it was the oldest Pre-Colombian civilization and was a precursor to other Pre-Colombian civilizations.


Robert also researched the Aztec civilization and found that the original language of the Aztecs was Nahuatl (pronounced Nahua) and the influence of their culture and language spread as far north as the Yellowstone River and as far south as Panama.  


Shannon wrote about the Inca civilization.  The Inca's did not have a written language but still managed to create a huge empire.  They were able to achieve this through the use of quipus which were strings with knots tied in them in a certain pattern to denote something. However, after the Spanish conquered the Inca the knowledge of how to read/interpret these quipus disappeared and to this day the meaning behind the knots still remain a mystery.


Stacy wrote about the sophistication of the Mayan civilization and that in spite of their intellect and advancement, they had rituals and practices of human sacrifice.  They practiced human sacrifice in the belief this would sustain the sun and would also offer a human sacrifice in a hideous ritual where the person's heart would be cut out of the living sacrifice and offered to the priest who would anoint the faces of the Mayan idols with the blood of the sacrificed person. (Reminds me of the 2nd Indian Jones movie.)